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Building with Wood

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Glossary

Acrylic

A type of water-borne coating product containing acrylic polymers.

Alkyd

A type of polyester resin. Term often used to signify solvent-borne coatings, e.g., oil paints.

Backpriming

The application of a finish coat to the back side of wood such as shingles or siding.

Binder

The non-volatile film-forming solid portion in a coating, which binds the pigment particles together after the film is dry and creates the bond with the substrate.  Typical binders include alkyd resins, acrylic resins and polyurethane resins.

Bleeding

When the colour of a discolouration or other material works up through a coating to the surface.  Commonly used to describe leaching of tannins in extractive species like western red cedar and redwood (typically happens for the first year or so if not stain blocked).

Blistering

When a coating forms bubbles due to air, water vapour or solvent under the film.

Dry lumber

Lumber which has been dried to a moisture content of 19% or less. Any 4” and thinner boards or dimension lumber surfaced at a moisture content (MC) of 19% or less may be stamped “S-DRY” and stamped “KD” if kiln-dried to a maximum moisture content of 19%.  Lumber in the USA may be stamped “KDAT” if kiln-dried after pressure treatment with preservatives.

Enamel

Generic term for an alkyd-based pigmented coating that dries to a smooth, hard, glossy finish.  The term is often more broadly used for a coating which gives a hard, stain-resistant film.

Extractives

Soluble chemicals particularly present in the heartwood of some species which provide the wood with resistance to decay and insects.

Fungicide

A substance which inhibits the growth of fungus.  Often added to coatings to protect the coatings themselves from fungal growth.

Latex

Term used to signify water-borne paints.

Lacquer

Coating material characterized by rapid evaporation of the solvent to produce a thin, hard film.

Linseed oil

Obtained by crushing flax seeds, this natural oil can be used as a vehicle in paints, as a softening agent for the resins in varnishes, or can be used alone as a wood finish material.  Raw linseed oil is a food source for fungi and must be boiled to destroy these nutrients. Most “boiled” linseed oil is not boiled but contains metallic dryers and biocides.

Oil-based paints

Paints using natural oils such as linseed or tung oil as the binder, with turpentine as the usual solvent.  The term is now usually used to refer to paints with both alkyds and oil as the binders, and with a carrier of mineral spirits or other solvents.

Paint

An opaque coating generally made with a binder, liquids, additives and pigments. Applied in liquid form, it dries to form a continuous film that protects and improves the appearance of the substrate.

Pigment

Finely ground solids that impart colour, hiding power (opacity) and ultraviolet protection.

Pitch

Also called resin, this sticky substance is a mixture of rosin and turpentine and is found in most softwoods but particularly the pines, spruces and Douglas-fir.  Can ooze from the pitch pockets and sometimes the knots for a year or two if not set by kiln-drying.  Resin can bleed through finishes and will harden into beads, but this can be cleaned up with mineral spirits and will stop eventually.

Primer

The first complete coat of paint applied in a painting system. Many primers are designed to enhance adhesion between the surface and subsequent topcoats. Most primers contain some pigment, some lend uniformity to the topcoat, some inhibit corrosion of the substrate, and some stop the discolouration of the topcoat.

Resin

For tree resin, see Pitch. In coatings, see Binder.

Sealer

A liquid that seals wood pores so they will not absorb subsequent coats.  Sealers may be transparent, and can act as primers. Some sealers are designed to be left uncoated.

Semi-transparent stain

Stain that alters the natural colour of the wood, yet allows the grain and texture to show through. The term is generally applied to exterior products, but technically applies also to interior wiping stains used for trim, furniture and floors.

Shellac

Alcohol-soluble, clear to orange-coloured resin derived from lac, a substance secreted by insects.  Previously used as a sealer and clear finish for floors, for sealing knots, and in “alcohol-borne” primers; rarely in use anymore. Thinner is denatured alcohol. It is an environmentally friendly product and usually available from finish suppliers.

Solid-colour stain

Exterior stain that obscures the natural colour and grain of wood, but still allows the texture to show through – essentially, a thin paint.

Stain

A coating product which can either be opaque such as a solid colour stain or partly transparent such as a semi-transparent stain. Also refers to wood discolourations such as discolourations caused by tannins in wood extractives, or stain caused by fungi such as bluestain.

Solvent

In generic coatings terminology, refers to the volatile liquid used to improve the working properties of a coating, typically water or hydrocarbons.  In “solvent-borne” coatings, refers specifically to a coating based on hydrocarbons.

Tung oil

Obtained from the nut of the Asian tung tree. Hardly ever used in the raw state as it dries to a non-lustrous finish.  Used in varnishes.

Varnish

Generic term for clear film-forming finish. Transparent or translucent liquids applied as a thin film, which harden.  Can be solvent or water-borne.

VOC

Volatile organic compound.  VOCs are organic chemical compounds that have high enough vapour pressures under normal conditions to significantly vaporize and enter the atmosphere where they may participate in photochemical reactions. They are often associated with solvents, typically considered to be pollutants, and are the subject of regulations in many jurisdictions.

Canadian Preservation Industry

Canada has had a wood preservation industry for about 100 years.  Canada is tied with the UK as the world’s second largest producer of treated wood (the USA is first, by a large margin).  In 1999, the most recent year for which we have data, Canada produced 3.5 million cubic metres of treated wood.  There are about 65 treating plants in Canada.

As with most other industrialized countries, Canada developed a wood preservation industry using creosote, initially to service railroads (the ties holding the rails) and then utilities (power poles).  Creosote production began declining by the 1950s, and by the 1970s was being somewhat replaced for these traditional uses by pentachlorophenol.  Today, these oil-borne preservatives only constitute 17% of Canadian treated wood production.

The remaining 83% of production uses water-borne preservatives such as CCA, ACQ and CA.  The industry began its substantial shift to the water-borne products in the 1970s, as consumer interest in decks and other residential outdoor structures dramatically increased.  For many years, CCA was by far the dominant preservative for both residential and industrial applications.

In 2004, CCA regulations were changed such that CCA is no longer available for many residential applications.  Subsequently, Canadian treaters have shifted about 80% of their previous CCA production to ACQ or CA.

Most of Canada’s treated wood is used domestically; Canada exports only 10% of its production.

Canada has its own wood preservation standards, supports several technical and marketing organizations, and maintains a lead position in certain areas of wood preservation research.  A major focus of the industry has been in response to increasing levels of health and environmental protection regulations.

Durability Research and Development

FPInnovations has been field testing the performance of treated wood products for years. Click one of these categories for performance data from our field tests.

Borate-treated Wood vs. Termites

Round Wood Posts
Sawn Wood Posts

 

 

 

 

 

Lumber vs. termites
Shakes

 

 

 

 

 

Marine Pilings
Field Cuts

 

 

 

 

 

Naturally Durable Species

The heartwood of species reported to have some natural durability was evaluated in ground contact (stakes) and above-ground (decking) tests. 

Commodity: 2×4 and 2×6 lumber from naturally durable species: Western redcedar, yellow cypress, eastern white cedar, larch, tamarack, Douglas-fir

Control species: Ponderosa pine sapwood

Test method: Stake test (AWPA E7) and Decking test (AWPA E25)

Test sites: FPInnovations – Maple Ridge, BC; Petawawa, ON

Michigan Technological University – Gainesville, Florida; Kipuka, Hawaii 

Date of installation: 2004-2005

 

Estimated service life: In the ground-contact stake test, after 5 years moderate to high levels of decay were found in all species at all sites. Yellow cypress and western redcedar were the most durable at all site. Eastern white cedar had similar durability at the Canadian and Florida sites, but was less durable in Hawaii. There were no major performance differences observed between old-growth and second-growth materials used in this study. Untreated naturally durable heartwood is not recommended for long-term performance in ground contact.

In the above ground decking test, at the Canadian test sites after 10 years only small amounts of decay were observed in any of the naturally durable heartwoods tested. In contrast, the ponderosa pine controls had moderate to advanced decay. Decay was more rapid at the Florida and Hawaii test sites, with moderate to advanced decay present in all material types after 7 years. Untreated naturally durable heartwood is not recommended for long-term performance in exposed above ground applications in high decay hazard areas such as Florida and Hawaii. However, in temperate climates these naturally durable heartwoods can provide service lives greater than 10 years.

References:

Morris, P. I., Ingram, J., Larkin, G., & Laks, P. (2011). Field tests of naturally durable species. Forest Products Journal, 61(5), 344-351.

Morris, P. I., Laks, P., Larkin, G., Ingram, J. K., & Stirling, R. (2016). Aboveground decay resistance of selected Canadian softwoods at four test sites after 10 years of exposure. Forest products journal, 66(5), 268-273.

Durability Solutions

Wood has been a valuable and effective structural material since the earliest days of human civilisation. With normal good practice, wood can deliver many years of reliable service. But, like other building materials, wood can suffer as a result of mistakes made in storage, design, construction, and maintenance practices.

How can you ensure long life of a wood building? The best approach is always to remember that wood meant for dry application must stay dry. Start out by buying dry wood, store it carefully to keep it dry, design the building to protect the wood elements, keep wood dry during construction, and practice good maintenance of the building. This approach is called durability by design.

If wood won’t stay dry, you have two choices in approach. Because wet wood is at risk of decay, you must select a product with decay resistance. One choice is to choose a naturally durable species like Western red cedar. This approach is called durability by nature.

Most of our construction lumber is not naturally durable, but we can make it decay resistant by treating it with a preservative. Preservative-treated lumber is more reliably resistant to decay than naturally durable lumber. This approach is called durability by treated wood.

The level of attention you give to durability issues during the course of design depends on your decay hazard. In other words, the more that your circumstances put wood at risk, the more care you must take in protecting against  decay. In outdoor applications, for example, any wood in contact with the ground is at high risk of decay and should be pressure-treated with a preservative. For wood that is exposed to the weather but not in direct ground contact, the degree of hazard correlates with climate. The fungi that harm wood generally grow best in moist environments with warm temperatures. Researchers have developed hazard zones in North America using mean monthly temperature and number of rainy days. This map in particular shows the rainfall hazard and applies to exposed uses of wood such as decks, shingles and fence boards. A high degree of hazard would indicate a need to carefully choose a wood species or preservative treatment for maximum service life. In the future, building codes may provide more specific directives as a function of decay hazard. For wood not exposed to weather, such as framing lumber, this map is only moderately useful. This is because the environmental conditions in the wall may be substantially different than those outdoors.

Surface Pre-treatment

Liquid application: Dip diffusion treatment of green (wet) lumber

Dip-diffusion treatment involves immersion of freshly cut lumber, still wet from the tree, in a concentrated solution of preservative. The preservative may be thickened to increase the amount of solution retained on the surface. The lumber is stacked, covered and stored for periods of weeks to allow the preservative to diffuse deep into the wood. In New Zealand, framing lumber has been treated with borates using this process since the 1950s. Dip-diffusion works well with wood species that are mostly sapwood or have wet heartwood. The ratio of the surface area to the volume, the amount of solution retained on the surface, and the solubility of the preservative limit the amount of chemical that can be delivered deep into the wood using this process. For example, a boric acid loading of 0.5% by weight of the wood, sufficient to prevent decay and beetle attack, can be applied to nominal 2 inch lumber using this process. However, a boric acid loading of 2.0% by weight, sufficient to prevent attack by Formosan termites, cannot be achieved without multiple dips and months of storage.

Liquid application: Spray treatment of framing

Since this type of treatment is typically done during the construction phase, it can be applied to the whole structure or to selected parts of the structure that are anticipated to be at risk from fungal decay or insect attack. Solids and fumigants are not appropriate for these applications, and the only widely used formulations are based on borates. Because the wood is dry at this stage, and because borates require moisture for diffusion, it helps if such treatments are formulated to improve penetration in dry wood. This is usually achieved by adding glycols. Nevertheless, the initial preservative penetration cannot be expected to be as good as that provided by a pressure treatment process. Spray applications of borate are becoming popular in certain regions of the USA as part of termite management systems. Typically, whole house superficial treatments are used to protect against drywood termites and wood boring beetles. This replaces regular fumigation. For subterranean termite protection, concentrated glycol borates may be applied to the bottom two feet of all wood in contact with the slab or, for crawl space construction, two feet up and inwards from the foundation. This replaces a soil barrier.

Brush Application

Brush applications for surface pre-treatment are basically limited to field-cut preservatives for pressure treated wood and homeowner treatment of structures, presumably with limited life expectancy. Copper naphthenate works well above ground or in ground contact, but its dark green colour (fading to brown after a year or so) is not very appealing. Zinc naphthenate is colourless and can be tinted to suit, but does not work as well in ground contact. Borates are typically used for field cuts on interior sill plates. In addition, borate/glycol mixtures are available for domestic use.

Depot Treatment

Since depot treatment is localized, it is critical that it be placed in the right location, which requires an understanding of how moisture may get into the structure. This can only be done when construction is complete or very near completion. At that point the degree of protection by design can be assessed and any water traps can be identified and, where possible, eliminated. The treatment can then be applied in the right location to intercept moisture close to its point of entry.

Depot treatments are an excellent choice for a few common design applications such as partially exposed beams. When a beam penetrates the building envelope, only a portion is exposed to moisture and it makes sense to just treat that part. Depot treatments are especially useful for products that are not well-suited to pressure treatment with waterborne preservatives, like glulam. Similarly, depot treatments are appropriate for exposed log ends in log homes – logs that extend beyond the protective roof overhang are at risk of decay.

Solids

Depot treatments most commonly use a solid form of preservative. Borate, copper/borate and fluoride rods are highly suited to this end use since they are easy to install and the active ingredients only become mobile if moisture entry occurs.

Other formats

Pastes can be packed into drilled holes or routed grooves – log home grooves are an appropriate application. Liquid injection is less common, as this involves drilling small holes, inserting a pin nozzle injector connected to a 70 -120 psi tank/pump, and forcing preservative along the grain under pressure. A series of such holes is required, particularly for large dimensions, to increase loading. Less suited to depot treatments, fumigants have not, to our knowledge, been used in these applications.

Supplemental Treatment

Supplementary treatment may be added wherever on-site cutting or drilling of wood is unavoidable, or where it is suspected the original protection measures may be inadequate. This is most commonly done in applications such as wood foundations, agricultural buildings, or non-residential long-life applications such as utility poles and bridge timbers.

For wood foundations and agricultural buildings, it is normal to expect some end cutting and boring for bolts, pipes or electrical wiring. Typically copper naphthenate is brushed on the cut ends or holes in the treated wood to protect the exposed surfaces. Experience has shown that this is adequate for the limited exposure resulting from such cases.

For cases such as poles or bridge timbers, the original preservative protection can be lost over time due to degradation or depletion of the active ingredients. A need for supplementary treatment may be indicated by damage to similar structures in the same area. Or there may be evidence that the risk of damage has increased, for example, if new termites move into the area.

In cases like utility poles, where these are part of the physical infrastructure of an organization, inspection, maintenance and remediation are regularly practiced to ensure continued safety in use and to schedule replacement. Often the cost of supplementary treatment is relatively small compared to the cost of inspection, and is a very small fraction of the cost of premature failure. Supplementary treatment may also be prudent in terms of due diligence (reducing legal liability). During inspection of these structures, drills or increment borers may be used to determine the condition of the interior of the wood members. It is advised to treat these holes, to avoid infection from non-sterilized drills and borers. In addition, as holes are typically drilled where decay is suspected or anticipated, treating the holes is wise to supplement protection at that site.

Solids

Borate, copper/borate and fluoride rods have seen increasingly widespread use as supplementary treatments for internal decay due to their convenience in handling and very low toxicity. Copper moves more slowly in the wood than borate, providing protection to the zone around the rod if the borate is removed over time through mass flow of water. This is mainly of concern for utility poles in wet climates, where moisture moves into the pole from the soil, wicks up the pole and evaporates above ground, moving the borate up the pole with it – this leaves the borate in a part of the pole not especially at risk for decay. The rate of water flow may be relatively slow in Douglas fir (an impermeable wood species) treated with an oil-borne preservative having some water repellency. It may be more rapid in southern pine (a very permeable wood species) treated with a waterborne preservative.

Liquids, Pastes and Gels

Spray and foam application of liquids and gels are increasingly used for supplementary treatment of wood frame buildings against termites and wood boring beetles. Holes are drilled into each stud space and the liquids or gels are pumped in under pressure. Coverage cannot be expected to be as effective as that achieved by spray treatment during construction. Liquids can be poured or pumped into drilled holes to treat internal decay in utility poles or timbers. Typically the loading of preservative that can be achieved is limited in the first case by the size and location of the holes and the solubility of the chemical, and in the second case by the permeability of the wood. Another approach is to leave a pressurized device attached to the pole below ground, which pushes a larger amount of liquid into the pole over a longer time period. Care must be taken to ensure that drilled holes do not intersect voids or checks leading to the surface of the wood; otherwise, the liquids can flow out. Pastes can be packed into drilled holes to treat internal decay. Alternatively, they can be brushed or trowelled on or applied on bandages to treat external decay.

Fumigants

Fumigant treatments have been used successfully for decades on utility poles and timber structures. The gas moves rapidly through the wood, adsorbing to the lignocellulose and providing several years of residual protection.

Fasteners

Fasteners, Connectors and Flashing for Wood Treated With Copper-Based Preservatives

The presence of moisture is a precondition for corrosion of metals. Treated wood is typically used in applications where it may be exposed to moisture for considerable periods so any fasteners and connectors used with treated wood must also be resistant to these conditions.  In addition, most wood preservatives designed for exterior use contain copper that may react with the metals used to fabricate fasteners and connectors therefore, it is important to use the right type of fastener and/or connectors. Where treated wood is used in dry environments to prevent damage by wood-destroying insects, including termites, corrosion is of less concern.

Users and specifiers should also be aware that corrosive industrial, or salt air, environments may also require the use of appropriate corrosion resistant metals.

Types of Wood Preserving Treatments

Most copper-based preservatives are corrosive to unprotected fasteners and connectors. More recent systems such as MCA where the copper isn’t introduced in an ionic salt form, are designed to reduce the corrosion of metals, and the preserved wood is approved for use in contact with aluminum (e.g. brackets or outdoor furniture legs). Borate treatments do not increase the risk of corrosion.

Recommendations on Connectors for Treated Wood

Connectors used for wood treated with a copper-based preservative must be manufactured from steel either hot–dipped galvanized in accordance with ASTM A653 or hot dipped galvanized after manufacture in accordance with ASTM A123.  Galvanizing nails and screws is actually a sacrificial coating to protect the structural integrity of the fastener, and the presence of some white corrosion product on the surface is normal. Red rust appearing is an indicator of coating failure. The service life of these components can be extended by using a barrier membrane between the connector and the treated wood surface. Stainless steel connectors (type 304 or 316) should be used for maximum service life, for high preservative retentions (i.e. ground contact products) or severe applications such as salt spray environments.  For borate-treated wood used inside buildings, the same connectors can be used as for untreated wood.

Recommendations on Fasteners for Treated Wood

Fasteners for use in treated wood that will be exposed to the weather should be selected to withstand weathering as long as the treated wood itself. 

As a minimum, nails for wood treated with a copper-based preservative must be hot-dipped galvanized in accordance with ASTM A153. Hot-dipped galvanized nails should not be fastened using a high pressure nail gun due to the risk of damage to the coating during firing. The protective coating on electroplated galvanized fasteners is too thin and will perform poorly, and common nails will corrode rapidly after fastening most copper-based treated wood.  Stainless steel should be used for maximum service life, for high preservative retentions or severe applications such as salt spray environments. Where appropriate, copper fasteners may also be used. Fasteners used in combination with metal connectors must be the same type of metal to avoid galvanic corrosion caused by dissimilar metals.  For example stainless steel fasteners should not be used in combination with galvanized connectors.

Screws intended for use on wood treated with a copper-based preservative must be hot dipped galvanized in accordance with ASTM A153 or, if recommended by the manufacturer and the preservative supplier, high-quality polymer coated. Stainless steel should be used for maximum service life, for high preservative retentions or severe applications such as salt spray environments.

For borate treated wood used inside buildings, the same fasteners can be used as for untreated wood.

As a general rule aluminum fasteners should not be used with treated wood, except new generation products (MCA treated) specifically tested, approved and labelled as suitable for contact with Aluminum. 

Recommendations on Flashing for Treated Wood

Flashing used in contact with treated wood must be compatible with the treated wood and be last long enough to be suitable for the intended application.  Flashing must also be of the same type of metal as any fasteners that penetrate through them to avoid galvanic corrosion. Copper and stainless steel are the most durable metals for flashing.  Galvanized steel, in accordance with ASTM A653, G185 designation, is also suitable for use as flashing.

Other Fasteners, Connectors or Hardware as Recommended by the Manufacturer

There may be additional products such as polymer or ceramic coatings for fasteners, or vinyl or plastic flashings that are suitable for use with treated wood products.  Consult the individual fastener, connector or flashing manufacturer for recommendations for use of their products with treated wood.

Current Recommendations for Drying and Conditioning of Treated Wood Prior to Construction.

Wood treated with copper-based preservatives should be at the least surface dried at the treating plant, in the store or at the job site before attachment of fasteners, connectors, flashing or other hardware. A moisture meter with a calibration for preservative treated wood should be used to verify that the wood is within a similar moisture content range to untreated construction lumber (i.e. about 12 to 18%) otherwise the treated wood can undergo similar shrinkage related cracking and deformation as incorrectly conditioned untreated lumber.

Canadian Preservation Industry

Canada has had a wood preservation industry for more than 100 years.  Canada is tied with the UK as the world’s second largest producer of treated wood (the USA is first, by a large margin).  In 1999, the most recent year for which we have data, Canada produced 3.5 million cubic metres of treated wood.  There are about 60 treating plants in Canada.

As with most other industrialized countries, Canada developed a wood preservation industry using creosote, initially to service railroads (the ties holding the rails) and then utilities (power poles).  Creosote production began declining by the 1950s, and by the 1970s was being somewhat replaced for these traditional uses by pentachlorophenol.  Today, these oil-borne preservatives only constitute 17% of Canadian treated wood production.

The remaining 83% of production uses water-borne preservatives such as CCA, ACQ, CA and MCA.  The industry began its substantial shift to the water borne products in the 1970s, as consumer interest in decks and other residential outdoor structures dramatically increased.  For many years, CCA was by far the dominant preservative for both residential and industrial applications.

In 2004, CCA regulations were changed such that CCA is no longer available for many residential applications.  Subsequently, Canadian treaters have shifted about 80% of their previous CCA production to ACQ, CA or MCA.

Most of Canada’s treated wood is used domestically; Canada exports only 10% of its production. Canada has its own wood preservation standards, supports several technical and marketing organizations, and maintains a lead position in certain areas of wood preservation research.  A major focus of the industry has been in response to increasing levels of health and environmental protection regulations.

More Information

For information on fasteners:

MiTek www.mitek.ca

Simpson Strong Tie

International Staple, Nail, And Tool Association

http://www.isanta.org/

Preservative supplier links

https://woodpreservation.ca

http://www.goodfellowinc.com/

http://www.uspconnectors.com/  

http://www.strongtie.com/ 

http://www.isanta.org/ 

 

Treatability

Treatability of Major North American Softwoods

Some wood is easier to treat than others. The particular structure of the cells for a given piece of wood will determine how permeable the wood is to chemicals. This table describes the permeability of common softwoods used in North America. The permeability ratings are:

1 – Permeable
2 – Moderately Impermeable
3 – Impermeable
4 – Extremely Impermeable

Tree Permeability Permeability Predominant in the Tree
  Sapwood Heartwood  
Douglas Fir 2 4 Heartwood 
Western Hemlock 2 3 Heartwood
Eastern Hemlock 2 4 Heartwood
White Spruce 2 3-4 Heartwood
Engelmann Spruce 2 3-4 Heartwood
Black Spruce 2 4 Heartwood
Red Spruce 2 4 Heartwood
Sitka Spruce 2 3 Heartwood
Lodgepole Pine 1 3-4 Heartwood
Jack Pine 1 3 Heartwood
Red Pine 1 3 Sapwood
Southern Pine 1 3 Sapwood
Ponderosa Pine 1 3 Sapwood
Amabilis Fir (Pacific silver fir) 2 2-3 Heartwood
Alpine Fir 2 3 Heartwood
Balsam Fir 2 4 Heartwood
Western Red Cedar 2 3-4 Heartwood
Eastern White Cedar 2 3-4 Heartwood
Yellow Cypress 1 3 Heartwood
Western S-P-F 2 3-4 Heartwood
Eastern S-P-F 2 4 Heartwood
Hem-Fir 2 3 Heartwood
Western Larch 2 4 Heartwood
Tamarack 2 4 Heartwood

Incising

We can improve the penetration of preservative into impermeable wood by making little cuts in the wood. A series of small, shallow slits are cut into the wood by an incising machine. This is an effective way of increasing the treatability of lumber pieces which are predominantly heartwood. Species with heartwood permeability ratings of higher than 3 require high density incising (over 7,500 incisions per square meter). Incising does reduce the strength of lumber and this effect must be taken into account in engineering calculations.

Drying to Maximise Treatabilty

Unless the purchaser can be assured that lumber for treatment will be air dried to less than 30% moisture content, the specification of KD lumber for preservative treatment is strongly recommended. The problem with treating lumber which is not kiln dried is that the practicalities of production and delivery lead to the potential for poor product quality. The durability of treated Canadian lumber relies on a shell of preservative treatment preventing access by wood-rotting fungi to the untreated core. If the treated shell fails to prevent penetration by checks or abrasion or if the wood-rotting fungus is already in the untreated core, premature failure can result. There are four major pitfalls in treating green lumber: saturated sapwood, frozen lumber, check development and pre-treatment infection.

Saturated Sapwood

In order for the preservative to penetrate the wood cells, they must be empty of water, that is, the wood must be below 30% moisture content. In green lumber the sapwood cells may be too full of sap to accept any preservative. The sapwood is the part most susceptible to decay and most in need of preservative penetration. Partial air or kiln drying to between 20 and 30% moisture content is ideal, but there is seldom the time or the conditions necessary to do this. Purchasing commercial KD material (maximum 20%) is normally the only option to ensure the sapwood will accept treatment.

Frozen Lumber

The overwhelming majority of production is treated over the winter to prepare for the spring and summer outdoor construction season. With the exception of coastal British Columbia, most regions of Canada will be dealing with frozen wood at this time. Many treating plants do not have dry kilns, thus material is treated in the condition it is delivered to the plant. Preservative will not penetrate through ice until it is fully thawed. This typically occurs in contact with the treating solution. Frozen green lumber contains a lot of ice and there is insufficient time for this to thaw during typical commercial treating cycles. The residual moisture (12 – 20%) in kiln-dried lumber is in the cell walls and will not impede preservative penetration even if it is frozen.

Check Development

Checks only develop when the moisture content of wood drops below about 28%. If lumber is treated green and then dries, checks will penetrate the treated zone exposing the untreated core. If lumber is kiln-dried to the in-service moisture content, typically around 16% in exterior exposure, the checks will be largely developed prior to treatment. This means that the checks will be lined with a treated zone and the shell of treatment will remain intact.

Pre-treatment Infection

A lesser problem than the above three, but still of some concern, is the potential for survival through the manufacturing process of wood-rotting fungi that may have infected in the tree, log or lumber storage stages. At worst, this might only apply to 10% or fewer of pieces. Nevertheless, we have seen examples where treatment of green lumber without application of heat (60°C or more) fails to kill wood-rotting fungi already in the product, leading to premature failure in service. This can occur in as little as 4 years. CCA treatment is a cool process, but most kiln-drying schedules will kill all wood-rotting fungi.

Resilience

Individuals in the design and construction community are increasingly choosing materials, design techniques and construction procedures that improve a structure’s ability to withstand and recover from extreme events such as intense rain, snow and wind, hurricanes, earthquakes and wildfire. As a result, specifying robust materials and design details, and constructing flexible and easily repairable buildings are becoming important design criteria.

Resilience is the ability to prepare and plan for, absorb, recover from, and more successfully adapt to adverse events. For a building, this means being designed to withstand and recover quickly from adverse situations such as flooding and high winds, with an acceptable level of functionality. A structure built to withstand such natural disasters with minimal damage is easier to repair and can contribute to sustainable development. Designing for resilience can contribute to minimizing human risk, reducing material waste and lowering restoration costs.

As a result of shifting weather patterns due to climate change, there is a growing interest in adaptation and designing for resilience. Higher temperatures can increase the odds of more extreme weather events, including severe heat waves and regional changes in floods, droughts and potential for more severe wildfires. There are more intense and more frequent hurricanes, and precipitation often comes in the form of intense single-day events. Warmer winter temperatures cause water to evaporate in the air and if the temperature is still below freezing, this can lead to unusually heavy snow, sleet or freezing rain, even in years when snowfall is lower than average.

A resilient building is able to deal with changes such as a heavier snow load, wider temperature fluctuations, and more extreme wind and rain. Existing wood buildings can be easily adapted or retrofitted if there is a need for increased wind or snow loading. Wood buildings that are properly designed and constructed perform well in all types of climates, even the wettest. Wood tolerates high humidity and can absorb or release water vapour without compromising the structural integrity.

In some regions, climate change is seen to be contributing to increasingly complex wildfire seasons, which results in greater risk of extreme wildfire events. Some wildland fire regulations target specific construction features in wildland-urban interface areas, such as exterior decks, roof coverings, and cladding. A number of wood products meet these regulations for various applications, including heavy timber elements, fire retardant treated wood and some wood species that demonstrate low flame spread ratings (less than 75).

 

For further information, refer to the following resources:

Resilient and Adaptive Design Using Wood (Canadian Wood Council)

American Wood Council

American Institute of Architects

Remedial Treatment

Since remedial treatment is intended to solve a known insect or decay problem, the first thing to do is investigate the extent of the problem and, if necessary, provide temporary structural support. The investigation phase should also identify the causal factors so that these can be eliminated, where possible. Also during the investigation, the parts of the wood that have lost strength may be removed. Be aware that a wood decay fungus may have penetrated well beyond the boundaries of the visibly rotted wood. Since deterioration is underway, a rapid response is normally required. This means that where the deteriorated and infected wood cannot be removed and replaced with sound wood, the remedial treatment must be capable of rapidly penetrating the wood and killing the fungi or insects.

Solids

Since solids take time to dissolve and move, they are commonly supplemented by liquid treatments for more rapid eradication of the decay fungus or insect. Borate and copper/borate rods are the only solid remedial treatment method available to the homeowner.

Liquids, Pastes and Gels

Liquids, pastes and gels work rapidly as they do not have to rehydrate or dissolve to start moving and working. Since all visibly decayed wood should be removed wherever possible, these treatments are often used primarily to kill and contain any residual infection inadvertently left behind. Brush or spray applications are quite appropriate for this use. Gels are commonly applied to paint cracks in window joints and to the bottom of door frames, locations where moisture may get into the wood. Where decayed wood is present inside poles and timbers and cannot be removed, liquids, pastes or gels must be inserted deep into the wood for rapid action.

Fumigants

Gases move the most rapidly and therefore have a faster eradicant action.

Moisture and Wood

The durability of wood is often a function of water, but that doesn’t mean wood can never get wet. Quite the contrary, wood and water usually live happily together. Wood is a hygroscopic material, which means it naturally takes on and gives off water to balance out with its surrounding environment. Wood can safely absorb large quantities of water before reaching moisture content levels that will be inviting for decay fungi.

Moisture content (MC) is a measure of how much water is in a piece of wood relative to the wood itself. MC is expressed as a percentage and is calculated by dividing the weight of the water in the wood by the weight of that wood if it were oven dry. For example, 200% MC means a piece of wood has twice as much of its weight due to water than to wood. Two important MC numbers to remember are 19% and 28%. We tend to call a piece of wood dry if it is at 19% or less moisture content. Fiber saturation averages around 28%.

Fiber saturation is an important benchmark for both shrinkage and for decay. The fibers of wood (the cells that run the length of the tree) are shaped like tapered drinking straws. When fibers absorb water, it first is held in the cell walls themselves. When the cell walls are full, any additional water absorbed by the wood will now go to fill up the cavities of these tubular cells. Fiber saturation is the level of moisture content where the cell walls are holding as much water as they can. Water held in the cell walls is called bound water, while water in the cell cavities is called free water. As the name implies, the free water is relatively accessible, and an accessible source of water is one necessity for decay fungi to start growing. Therefore, decay can generally only get started if the moisture content of the wood is above fiber saturation. The fiber saturation point is also the limit for wood shrinkage. Wood shrinks or swells as its moisture content changes, but only when water is taken up or given off from the cell walls. Any change in water content in the cell cavity will have no effect on the dimension of the wood. Therefore, wood only shrinks and swells when it changes moisture content below the point of fiber saturation.

Like other hygroscopic materials, wood placed in an environment with stable temperature and relative humidity will eventually reach a moisture content that yields no vapor pressure difference between the wood and the surrounding air. In other words, its moisture content will stabilize at a point called the equilibrium moisture content (EMC). Wood used indoors will eventually stabilize at 8-14% moisture content; outdoors at 12-18%. Hygroscopicity isn’t necessarily a bad thing – this allows wood to function as a natural humidity controller in our homes. When the indoor air is very dry, wood will release moisture. When the indoor air is too humid, wood will absorb moisture.

Wood shrinks/swells when it loses/gains moisture below its fiber saturation point. This natural behaviour of wood is responsible for some of the problems sometimes encountered when wood dries. For example, special cracks called checks can result from stresses induced in a piece of wood that is drying. As the piece dries, it develops a moisture gradient across its section (dry on the outside, wet on the inside). The dry outer shell wants to shrink as it dries below fiber saturation, however, the wetter core constrains the shell. This can cause checks to form on the surface. The shell is now set in its dimension, although the core is still drying and will in turn want to shrink. But the fixed shell constrains the core and checks can thus form in the core. Another problem associated with drying is warp. A piece of wood can deviate from its expected shape as it dries due to the fact that wood shrinks different amounts in different directions. It shrinks the most in the direction tangential to the rings, about half as much in the direction perpendicular to the rings, and hardly at all along the length of the tree. Where in the log a piece was cut will be a factor in how it changes shape as it shrinks. One advantage of usingdry lumber is that most of the shrinkage has been achieved prior to purchase. Dry lumber is lumber with a moisture content no greater than 19%; wood does most of its shrinking as it drops from 28-19%. Dry lumber will have already shown its drying defects, if any. It will also lead to less surprises in a finished building, as the product will stay more or less at the dimension it was upon installation. Dry lumber will be stamped with the letters S-DRY (for surfaced dry) or KD (for kiln dry).

Another way to avoid shrinkage and warp is to use composite wood products, also called engineeredwood products. These are the products that are assembled from smaller pieces of wood glued together – for example, plywood, OSB, finger-jointed studs and I-joists. Composite products have a mix of log orientations within a single piece, so one part constrains the movement of another. For example, plywood achieves this crossbanding form of self-constraint. In other products, movements are limited to very small areas and tend to average out in the whole piece, as with finger-jointed studs.

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