Factory Finishing
Select heartwood where possible to minimize nutrient content of wood surfaces and prevent nutrients migrating through the coating to support fungal growth on the surface. Round all corners to minimum 5 mm radius to eliminate sharp edges where coating can thin out. Prepare surface by sanding with 100 grit sandpaper to physically and chemically activate the surface. Pretreatment and coating should be applied immediately after sanding. Research shows sanding can double coating life. Pretreat with an aqueous formulation containing a UV absorber designed to absorb the visible light that must penetrate transparent coatings to permit the wood to be visible. If the subsequent coating is not completely opaque to UV light, a hindered amine light stabilizer should be added to the visible light protection system. Not only does a visible light protection system prevent degradation of the wood-coating interface, it also prevents release of lignin breakdown products that can be used as a food source by black-stain fungi and prevents light induced breakdown of the biocide components. This pre-treatment must also contain three low-dose carbon-based biocides with differing chemistries to provide cross protection against detoxification and with complementary spectra of activity providing resistance to the full range of black-stain fungi. It should ideally have water repellent properties and must maintain wood surface pH close to neutral or slightly alkaline. Apply a transparent water-based catalyzed urethane coating, containing organic and inorganic UV absorbers with absorbance that extends from UVB through to the high-energy part of the visible spectrum (violet light). The coating must virtually eliminate UV from penetrating to the wood, preventing breakdown of wood, biocides and water repellents. This coating will be formulated to be damp-wood friendly to allow application soon after pre-treatment. It will contain no nutrients for fungal growth. It must have an optimum combination of moisture excluding efficiency and vapour permeability to minimize moisture uptake and allow drying after rain. The first coat to be designed to penetrate and bond to the wood, subsequent coats to be designed to ensure maximum intercoat adhesion without sanding between coats. Sufficient coats to be applied to give a film thickness no less than 60 microns to minimize the ability of black-stain fungi to penetrate the film with their infection pegs. The surface layer to have sheeting rather than beading properties to ensure rapid drying after rain or dew, reducing the time available for spore germination. Additional detailed information on coating wood surfaces has been assembled by the Joint Coatings and Forest Products Committee (http://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/documnts/pdf2004/fpl_2004_bonura001.pdf, 2004).
Performance Factors
How long will an exterior wood coating last? Anywhere from a few months to 20 years or more, depending on the choice of product, how it was applied, and how severe the environment. Paints tend to last the longest, assuming they are applied properly (see Choosing and applying exterior wood coatings page). But the range of lifespan for a paint coating is very large. A low quality product badly applied to a weathered wood surface may barely last two years. If everything is done right, the coating might last 20 years. High quality paints and stains generally last longest, and coatings that are in locations protected from sunlight and water tend to last longer. Stains and water repellents have much shorter lives than paints, but are easier to maintain. This is one of the reasons they are a popular choice for stairs and decks. Depending on the degree of exposure to sun, water, foot traffic, and the pigment amount in the stain, expect a life of 1 to 2 years for a stain applied to deck boards and 2 to 5 for a stain applied to products that are not subject to wear. Water repellents generally last 6 to 12 months. Results from numerous tests on exterior wood finishes by many experts in this field, particularly by the US Forest Products Lab (USFPL), are summarized below. See the USFPL link for more information. Effect of wood anatomy Coatings, particularly solid colour stains and paints tend to last longer on dimensionally stable species such as western red cedar, eastern white cedar and Alaska yellow cedar, as these will shrink and swell less than other species and will therefore put less stress on the coating bond. However deck stains will not last as long on low density species such as western red cedar due to wear. Coatings last longer on wood with narrow latewood bands (the dark part of the annual ring) due to density differences between the earlywood (the light part of the ring) and the denser latewood. The southern pines are characterized by their wide bands of latewood, and therefore these species are considered to be somewhat poor for painting. The amount of extractives or resin in wood also affects coating performance. Special primers can be used to block water-soluble extractives, and kiln drying is most effective for fixing resin in wood. Nutrients in wood can migrate through the coating to support fungal growth on the surface, and heartwood can be chosen to minimize the nutrient content in wood. Effect of grain Finishes last longer on vertical (also called edge grain) versus flat grain, as these surfaces will shrink and swell less and therefore put less stress on the coating bond. However, it can be difficult to specify type of grain when ordering a product. Western red cedar and redwood may be available in a premium grade, which will likely be all heartwood, vertical grain. If using flat grain, place it bark side out or up if possible, because the grain is less likely to raise on that side, particularly in species with dense latewood bands such as the southern pines, and raised grain is a problem for coating adhesion. This is not an issue when using vertical grain products. Placing bark side out also minimizes checking. Effect of surface roughness Rough-sawn (saw-textured) or roughened wood creates a better coating bond and thicker coating buildup than smooth wood. The life of a coating can be substantially extended if the wood is roughened. Effect of sanding Sanding (100 grit) can double the life of a coating, for both weathered and freshly planed wood. This is because sanding removes any damaged surface fibres and also changes the surface chemistry to improve bonding of the coating. Effect of wood preservatives Semitransparent stains last longer when applied to CCA-treated wood – treated wood purchased prior to 2004 was probably treated with CCA. Research is under way on finishing for wood treated with new preservatives. Protection measures regarding use of treated wood apply when coating preservative-treated wood. Effect of bluestain Bluestain is caused by fungi, and bluestained wood is more permeable than unstained wood, therefore it may absorb more coating. Make sure to apply sufficient coating. Effect of weathering Sunlight quickly degrades the ability of a wood surface to bond with a coating. Research has shown a tremendous difference in paint performance on weathered versus unweathered wood. Paint on boards with no exposure to weather prior to painting lasted at least 20 years. Boards that had weathered for 16 weeks prior to painting began showing cracks in just 3 years. For maximum coating life, sand the surface if the wood has been exposed to any sunlight at all, particularly if for more than two weeks. Effect of product manufacturing Plywood: Coatings on plywood are challenged by the small cracks (face checks) on the surface that are caused by the lathe when the veneer is cut from the log during manufacturing. As the plywood goes through moisture cycling outdoors, these cracks tend to get larger and stress the coating bond. Plywood surface, edges and joints in outdoor applications should be protected, and coatings and other products for helping plywood resist cracking can be applied to prevent moisture ingress. Generally a good stain can effectively protect plywood. Since checking in stained plywood usually occurs during the first six months of outdoor exposure, best coating results can be obtained by applying a first coat and allowing any checking to occur, then six months or so later applying a second coat. Paints can fail quickly on plywood, unless efforts are made to reduce moisture uptake and also to use flexible products to accommodate dimensional changes of the wood. Roughening the surface is also important. For plywood protection and other issues with plywood, see the recommendations from the Canadian Plywood Association (http://www.canply.org/pdf/main/plywood_handbookcanada.pdf). Finger-jointed products: Coatings may perform differently on different parts of these products, as they are not likely to be uniform in grain orientation, in heartwood versus sapwood content, or even
Finishing Quick Tips
For new wood, remember: The wood must be dry. Drying time depends on a few factors. Ideally the wood should be kiln-dried (stamped “S-DRY”, “KD” or “KDAT”, see glossary of “dry lumber”). If the wood is surface wet from rain or washing, let dry 1 to 2 days. If the wood is wet through (green lumber, pressure-treated lumber not stamped “KDAT”), 2 days of drying is acceptable if using a “damp-friendly” coating. Otherwise: The wood must be allowed to thoroughly dry to a stable outdoor moisture content; about 15% in most climates. The characteristics of the wood and the climatic characteristics of its environment are so variable that drying time is hard to predict. The common way to determine wood moisture content is with a moisture meter. (Note: specific correction factors should be applied if a moisture meter is used on preservative-treated wood.) Weather conditions during coating application can affect the coating’s drying, appearance and performance. Follow the coating manufacturer’s recommendation. Coat as soon as possible after the wood has been planed or sanded. Apply finishes within two weeks of exposure, or sooner if possible (Surface Preparation for Fresh Wood). Otherwise, follow the instructions for aged (weathered) wood below. If the wood is very smooth, lightly sand it to roughen the surface with 100-120 grit sand paper. This greatly improves the coating bond. Brush free of dirt and sawdust. If painting the wood, apply a primer coat. Use an extractive-blocking primer, if needed (for example, with western red cedar or redwood) over the entire piece, or a knot sealing primer if needed (Special Considerations). When dry, apply two coats of top quality paint. For stains and water repellents, follow the instructions on the can regarding number of coats. Carefully follow the instructions on the can regarding best environmental conditions for coating, application recommendations, safety precautions and clean-up. For aged (weathered) wood, remember: For wood that has been previously coated, please read about refinishing. Clean the wood and remove discolourations such as iron stain, if desired. Expose fresh wood because coatings perform best when applied to freshly exposed wood surfaces. Allow to dry. See Surface Preparation for Aged Wood. Brush free of dirt and sawdust, and proceed with application of the coating. When maintaining or refinishing, remember: Avoid the need to refinish by keeping an eye on the coating and adding a fresh coat before the previous coat wears away, cracks or peels. This may be as frequent as every six months with water repellents, every year or two with stains, and every few years with paint (See Maintenance). Spot-treat worn areas to extend the period between full applications of a fresh coat. Sand away any failed coating and any weathered wood, and re-apply the coating (See Maintenance). If the coating has failed on a large scale, or the coating is getting too thick for refinishing, or if a change in type of coating is desired, completely strip away the old coating – please read about refinishing.
Glossary
Acrylic A type of water-borne coating product containing acrylic polymers. Alkyd A type of polyester resin. Term often used to signify solvent-borne coatings, e.g., oil paints. Backpriming The application of a finish coat to the back side of wood such as shingles or siding. Binder The non-volatile film-forming solid portion in a coating, which binds the pigment particles together after the film is dry and creates the bond with the substrate. Typical binders include alkyd resins, acrylic resins and polyurethane resins. Bleeding When the colour of a discolouration or other material works up through a coating to the surface. Commonly used to describe leaching of tannins in extractive species like western red cedar and redwood (typically happens for the first year or so if not stain blocked). Blistering When a coating forms bubbles due to air, water vapour or solvent under the film. Dry lumber Lumber which has been dried to a moisture content of 19% or less. Any 4” and thinner boards or dimension lumber surfaced at a moisture content (MC) of 19% or less may be stamped “S-DRY” and stamped “KD” if kiln-dried to a maximum moisture content of 19%. Lumber in the USA may be stamped “KDAT” if kiln-dried after pressure treatment with preservatives. Enamel Generic term for an alkyd-based pigmented coating that dries to a smooth, hard, glossy finish. The term is often more broadly used for a coating which gives a hard, stain-resistant film. Extractives Soluble chemicals particularly present in the heartwood of some species which provide the wood with resistance to decay and insects. Fungicide A substance which inhibits the growth of fungus. Often added to coatings to protect the coatings themselves from fungal growth. Latex Term used to signify water-borne paints. Lacquer Coating material characterized by rapid evaporation of the solvent to produce a thin, hard film. Linseed oil Obtained by crushing flax seeds, this natural oil can be used as a vehicle in paints, as a softening agent for the resins in varnishes, or can be used alone as a wood finish material. Raw linseed oil is a food source for fungi and must be boiled to destroy these nutrients. Most “boiled” linseed oil is not boiled but contains metallic dryers and biocides. Oil-based paints Paints using natural oils such as linseed or tung oil as the binder, with turpentine as the usual solvent. The term is now usually used to refer to paints with both alkyds and oil as the binders, and with a carrier of mineral spirits or other solvents. Paint An opaque coating generally made with a binder, liquids, additives and pigments. Applied in liquid form, it dries to form a continuous film that protects and improves the appearance of the substrate. Pigment Finely ground solids that impart colour, hiding power (opacity) and ultraviolet protection. Pitch Also called resin, this sticky substance is a mixture of rosin and turpentine and is found in most softwoods but particularly the pines, spruces and Douglas-fir. Can ooze from the pitch pockets and sometimes the knots for a year or two if not set by kiln-drying. Resin can bleed through finishes and will harden into beads, but this can be cleaned up with mineral spirits and will stop eventually. Primer The first complete coat of paint applied in a painting system. Many primers are designed to enhance adhesion between the surface and subsequent topcoats. Most primers contain some pigment, some lend uniformity to the topcoat, some inhibit corrosion of the substrate, and some stop the discolouration of the topcoat. Resin For tree resin, see Pitch. In coatings, see Binder. Sealer A liquid that seals wood pores so they will not absorb subsequent coats. Sealers may be transparent, and can act as primers. Some sealers are designed to be left uncoated. Semi-transparent stain Stain that alters the natural colour of the wood, yet allows the grain and texture to show through. The term is generally applied to exterior products, but technically applies also to interior wiping stains used for trim, furniture and floors. Shellac Alcohol-soluble, clear to orange-coloured resin derived from lac, a substance secreted by insects. Previously used as a sealer and clear finish for floors, for sealing knots, and in “alcohol-borne” primers; rarely in use anymore. Thinner is denatured alcohol. It is an environmentally friendly product and usually available from finish suppliers. Solid-colour stain Exterior stain that obscures the natural colour and grain of wood, but still allows the texture to show through – essentially, a thin paint. Stain A coating product which can either be opaque such as a solid colour stain or partly transparent such as a semi-transparent stain. Also refers to wood discolourations such as discolourations caused by tannins in wood extractives, or stain caused by fungi such as bluestain. Solvent In generic coatings terminology, refers to the volatile liquid used to improve the working properties of a coating, typically water or hydrocarbons. In “solvent-borne” coatings, refers specifically to a coating based on hydrocarbons. Tung oil Obtained from the nut of the Asian tung tree. Hardly ever used in the raw state as it dries to a non-lustrous finish. Used in varnishes. Varnish Generic term for clear film-forming finish. Transparent or translucent liquids applied as a thin film, which harden. Can be solvent or water-borne. VOC Volatile organic compound. VOCs are organic chemical compounds that have high enough vapour pressures under normal conditions to significantly vaporize and enter the atmosphere where they may participate in photochemical reactions. They are often associated with solvents, typically considered to be pollutants, and are the subject of regulations in many jurisdictions.
Canadian Preservation Industry
Canada has had a wood preservation industry for about 100 years. Canada is tied with the UK as the world’s second largest producer of treated wood (the USA is first, by a large margin). In 1999, the most recent year for which we have data, Canada produced 3.5 million cubic metres of treated wood. There are about 65 treating plants in Canada. As with most other industrialized countries, Canada developed a wood preservation industry using creosote, initially to service railroads (the ties holding the rails) and then utilities (power poles). Creosote production began declining by the 1950s, and by the 1970s was being somewhat replaced for these traditional uses by pentachlorophenol. Today, these oil-borne preservatives only constitute 17% of Canadian treated wood production. The remaining 83% of production uses water-borne preservatives such as CCA, ACQ and CA. The industry began its substantial shift to the water-borne products in the 1970s, as consumer interest in decks and other residential outdoor structures dramatically increased. For many years, CCA was by far the dominant preservative for both residential and industrial applications. In 2004, CCA regulations were changed such that CCA is no longer available for many residential applications. Subsequently, Canadian treaters have shifted about 80% of their previous CCA production to ACQ or CA. Most of Canada’s treated wood is used domestically; Canada exports only 10% of its production. Canada has its own wood preservation standards, supports several technical and marketing organizations, and maintains a lead position in certain areas of wood preservation research. A major focus of the industry has been in response to increasing levels of health and environmental protection regulations.
Durability Research and Development
FPInnovations has been field testing the performance of treated wood products for years. Click one of these categories for performance data from our field tests. Borate-treated Wood vs. Termites Naturally Durable Species The heartwood of species reported to have some natural durability was evaluated in ground contact (stakes) and above-ground (decking) tests. Commodity: 2×4 and 2×6 lumber from naturally durable species: Western redcedar, yellow cypress, eastern white cedar, larch, tamarack, Douglas-fir Control species: Ponderosa pine sapwood Test method: Stake test (AWPA E7) and Decking test (AWPA E25) Test sites: FPInnovations – Maple Ridge, BC; Petawawa, ON Michigan Technological University – Gainesville, Florida; Kipuka, Hawaii Date of installation: 2004-2005 Estimated service life: In the ground-contact stake test, after 5 years moderate to high levels of decay were found in all species at all sites. Yellow cypress and western redcedar were the most durable at all site. Eastern white cedar had similar durability at the Canadian and Florida sites, but was less durable in Hawaii. There were no major performance differences observed between old-growth and second-growth materials used in this study. Untreated naturally durable heartwood is not recommended for long-term performance in ground contact. In the above ground decking test, at the Canadian test sites after 10 years only small amounts of decay were observed in any of the naturally durable heartwoods tested. In contrast, the ponderosa pine controls had moderate to advanced decay. Decay was more rapid at the Florida and Hawaii test sites, with moderate to advanced decay present in all material types after 7 years. Untreated naturally durable heartwood is not recommended for long-term performance in exposed above ground applications in high decay hazard areas such as Florida and Hawaii. However, in temperate climates these naturally durable heartwoods can provide service lives greater than 10 years. References: Morris, P. I., Ingram, J., Larkin, G., & Laks, P. (2011). Field tests of naturally durable species. Forest Products Journal, 61(5), 344-351. Morris, P. I., Laks, P., Larkin, G., Ingram, J. K., & Stirling, R. (2016). Aboveground decay resistance of selected Canadian softwoods at four test sites after 10 years of exposure. Forest products journal, 66(5), 268-273.
Mid-Rise Buildings
In the early 1900s, light-frame wood construction and heavy timber, up to ten-storeys in height, was commonplace in major cities throughout Canada. The longevity and continued appeal of these buildings types is apparent in the fact that many of them are still in use today. Over the past decade, there has been a revival in the use of wood for taller buildings in Canada, including mid-rise light-frame wood construction up to six-storeys in height. Mid-rise light-frame wood construction is more than basic 2×4 framing and wood sheathing panels. Advances in wood science and building technology have resulted in stronger, safer, more sophisticated engineered building products and systems that are expanding the options for wood construction, and providing more choices for builders and designers. Modern mid-rise light-frame wood construction in incorporates well researched and safe solutions. The engineering design and technology that has been developed and brought to market is positioning Canada as a leader in the mid-rise wood-frame construction industry. In 2009, via its provincial building codes, British Columbia became the first province in Canada to allow mid-rise buildings to be made from wood. Since this change to the British Columbia Building Code (BCBC), which increased the permissible height for wood frame residential buildings from four- to six-storeys, more than 300 of these structures have been completed or are underway with BC. In 2013 and 2015, Québec, Ontario, and Alberta, respectively, also moved to permit mid-rise wood-frame construction up to six-storeys in height. These regulatory changes indicate that there is clear market confidence in this type of construction. Scientific evidence and independent research has shown that mid-rise wood-frame buildings can meet performance requirements in regard to structural integrity, fire safety, and life safety. That evidence has now also contributed to the addition of new prescriptive provisions for wood construction, as well as paved the way for future changes that will include more permissible uses and ultimately greater permissible heights for wood buildings. As a result of this research, and the successful implementation of many mid-rise wood-frame residential buildings, primarily in British Columbia and Ontario, the Canadian Commission on Building and Fire Codes (CCBFC) approved similar changes to the National Model Construction Codes. The 2015 edition of the National Building Code of Canada (NBC) permits the construction of six-storey residential, business, and personal services buildings using traditional combustible construction materials. The NBC changes recognize the advancements in wood products and building systems, as well as in fire detection, suppression, and containment systems. In relation to mid-rise wood-frame buildings, several changes to the 2015 NBC are designed to further reduce the risks posed by fire, including: increased use of automatic sprinklers in concealed areas in residential buildings; increased use of sprinklers on balconies; greater water supply for firefighting purposes; and 90 percent noncombustible or limited-combustible exterior cladding on all storeys. Most mid-rise wood-frame buildings are located in the core of smaller municipalities and in the inner suburbs of larger ones, offering economic and sustainability advantages. Mid-rise wood-frame construction supports the goals of many municipalities; densification, affordable housing to accommodate a growing population, sustainability in the built environment and resilient communities. Many of these buildings have employed light-frame wood construction from the ground up, with a five- or six-storey wood-frame structure being constructed on a concrete slab-on-grade, or on top of a concrete basement parking garage; others have been constructed above one- or two-storeys of noncombustible commercial occupancy. Mid-rise wood buildings are inherently more complex and involve the adaptation of structural and architectural details that address considerations related to structural, acoustic, thermal and fire performance design criteria. Several key aspects of design and construction that become more critical in this new generation of mid-rise wood buildings include: increased potential for cumulative shrinkage and differential movement between different types of materials, as a result of the increased building height; increased, dead, live, wind and seismic loads that are a consequence of taller building height; requirements for continuous stacked shearwall layouts; increased fire-resistance ratings for fire separations, as required for buildings of greater height and area; ratings for sound transmission, as required for buildings of multi-family residential occupancy, as well as other uses; potential for longer exposure to the elements during construction; mitigation of risk related to fire during construction; and modified construction sequencing and coordination, resulting from the employment of prefabrication technologies and processes. There are many alternative approaches and solutions to these new design and construction considerations that are associated with mid-rise wood construction systems. Reference publications produced by the Canadian Wood Council provide more detailed discussion, case studies and details for mid-rise design and construction techniques. For further information, refer to the following resources: Mid-Rise Best Practice Guide (Canadian Wood Council) 2015 Reference Guide: Mid-Rise Wood Construction in the Ontario Building Code (Canadian Wood Council) Mid-Rise 2.0 – Innovative Approaches to Mid-Rise Wood Frame Construction (Canadian Wood Council) Mid-Rise Construction in British Columbia (Canadian Wood Council) National Building Code of Canada Wood Design Manual (Canadian Wood Council) CSA O86 Engineering design in wood Wood for Mid-Rise Construction (Wood WORKS! Atlantic) Fire Safety and Security: A Technical Note on Fire Safety and Security on Construction Sites in British Columbia/Ontario (Canadian Wood Council)
Bridges
Timber bridges have a long history as vital components of the roadway, railway and logging road networks within Canada. Dependent on the availability of materials, technology, and labour, the design and construction of wood bridges has evolved significantly over the last 200 hundred years throughout North America. Wood bridges take on many forms and use alternative support systems; including simple span log bridges, different types of trussed bridges, and stress-laminated or composite bridge decks and components. Timber bridges remain an important part of our transportation network in Canada. The benefits of building modern timber bridges include: reduced initial cost, particularly for remote areas; speed of construction, through the use of prefabrication; sustainability advantages; aesthetics; lighter foundations; lower earthquake loads, coupled with less complex connections to substructures; smaller temporary structures and cranes; and lower transportation costs associated with lower weight materials. The different types of materials used to construct wood bridges include: sawn lumber, round logs, straight and curved glued-laminated timber (glulam), laminated veneer lumber (LVL), parallel strand lumber (PSL), cross-laminated timber (CLT), nail-laminated timber (NLT), and composite systems such as stress-laminated decks, wood-concrete laminated decks, and fibre-reinforced polymers. Two main wood species used for wood bridge construction in Canada are Douglas fir and the Spruce-Pine-Fir species combination. Other species within the Hem-Fir and Northern species combinations are also recognized under CSA O86, however, they are less commonly used in bridge construction. All metal fasteners used for bridges must be protected against corrosion. The most common method for providing protection is hot dip galvanizing, a process whereby a sacrificial metal is added to exterior of the fastener. Different fastener types that are used in wood bridge construction include, but are not limited to, bolts, lag screws, split rings, shear plates, and nails (for deck laminations only). All highway bridges in Canada must be designed to meet the requirements outlined in CSA S6 and CSA O86. The CSA S6 standard requires that the main structural components of any bridge in Canada, regardless of construction type, be able to withstand a minimum of 75 years of loading during its service life. The style and span of bridges varies greatly depending on the application. In hard to reach locations with deep valleys, timber trestle bridges were common at the end of the 19th century and into the beginning of the 20th century. Historically, trestle bridges relied heavily on ample timber resources and in some cases, were considered to be temporary. Initial construction of North America’s transcontinental railways would not have been possible without the use of timbers to construct bridges and trestles. Many examples of trussed timber bridges for have been built for well over a century. Trussed bridges allow for longer spans compared to simple girder bridges and historically had spans in the range of 30 to 60 m (100 to 200 ft). Bridges that are designed with trusses located above the deck provide a great opportunity to build a roof over the roadway. Installing a roof overhead is an excellent way to shed water away from the main bridge structure and protect it from the sun. The presence of these covered roofs is the main reason these century-old covered bridges remain in service today. The fact that they remain part of our landscape is as much a testament to their hardiness as to their attractiveness. Although originally devised as a rehabilitation measure for aging bridge decks, the stress-laminating technique has been extended to new bridges through the application of stressing at the time of original construction. Stress-laminated decks provide improved structural behaviour, through their excellent resistance to the effects of repeated loading. Three main considerations related to durability of wood bridges include protection by design, preservative treatment of wood, and replaceable elements. A bridge can be designed such that it is inherently self-protecting by deflecting water away from the structural elements. Preservative treated wood has the ability to resist the effects of de-icing chemicals and attack by biotic agents. Lastly, the bridge should be designed such that, at some point in its future, a single element can be replaced relatively easily, without significant disruption or cost. For further information, refer to the following resources: Wood Highway Bridges (Canadian Wood Council) Ontario Wood Bridge Reference Guide (Canadian Wood Council) CSA S6 Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code CSA O86 Engineering design in wood
FAQs
What do the experts have to say about wood-frame mid-rise construction? Graham Finch, Building Science Research Engineer Michael Green, Principal, Michael Green Architecture Mid-rise Wood Construction – a detailed look at a changing landscape (Part 1) Mid-rise Wood Construction – a detailed look at a changing landscape (Part 2) Seven-storey wood-frame earthquake test BC Housing is supporting wood-frame construction for seniors’ rental housing Is mid-rise and tall wood building construction a new phenomenon: Wood-frame and heavy timber construction (up to ten storeys) was the norm in the early 1900’s, and many of these buildings still exist and are in use in many Canadian cities. Check them out here: http://www.flickr.com/photos/bobkh/337920532/. Over the past 10 years, there is a revival in the use of wood for both mid-rise (up to six-storeys) and tall buildings. In British Columbia alone, as of December 2013, there were over 250 five- and six-storey wood product based mid-rise buildings either in the design or construction phase. Why have code change proposals? This 2015 building code change is not about favoring wood over other building materials; it’s about acknowledging, via the highly thorough code process, that science-based innovation in wood products and building systems can and will lead to more choices for builders and occupants. Are these buildings safe? Regardless of the building material in question, nothing gets built unless it meets code. Mid-rise wood-frame buildings reflect a new standard of engineering in that structural, fire and seismic concerns have all been addressed by the expert committees of the Canadian Commission on Building and Fire Codes. As an example, when it comes to concerns from firefighters, there is increased sprinkler protection for concealed spaces and balconies, greater water supply for fire protection, restrictions on types of building claddings used and increased consideration for access by firefighters . In the end, when occupied, these buildings fully meet the same requirements of the Building Code as any other type of construction from the perspective of health, safety and accessibility. What are some of the new safety provisions being proposed? Fire safety: Increased level of sprinkler / water protection: More concealed spaces sprinklered Balconies must be sprinklered Greater water supply for fire protection Non-combustible or limited combustible exterior wall cladding on 5th and 6th storey 25% of perimeter must face one street (within 15m of street) for firefighter access Seismic and wind provisions: Similar to BC Building Code Guidance (Appendix) on impact of increased rain and wind loads for 5- and 6-storey Acoustics: Requirements for Apparent Sound Transmission Class (ASTC) Supported by science from FPInnovations, NRC and many others. Doesn’t wood burn? No building material is impervious to the effects of fire. The proposed code changes go above and beyond the minimum requirements outlined in the NBCC. Health, safety, accessibility, fire and structural protection of buildings remain the core objectives of the NBCC and wood industry at large. What about construction site safety? The Canadian Wood Council has developed construction site fire safety guides which outline best practices and safety precautions to take during the construction phase of a building. Are mid-rise wood-frame buildings cost effective? For the most part, yes. Mid-rise wood-frame buildings are often a less expensive construction option for builders. This is good news for main-street Canada where land is so expensive. The recommended changes to the National Building Code of Canada (NBCC) would give the opportunity to erect safe, code compliant buildings that would otherwise not be possible. The net benefit of reduced construction costs is increased affordability for home buyers. In terms of new economic opportunity, the ability to move forward “now” creates new construction jobs in cities and supports employment in forestry communities. This also offers increased export opportunities for current and innovative wood products, where adoption in Canada provides the example for other countries.
National Model Codes in Canada
On behalf of the Canadian Commission on Building and Fire Codes (CCBFC) the National Research Council (NRC) Codes Canada publishes national model codes documents that set out minimum requirements relating to their scope and objectives. These include the National Building Code (NBC), the National Fire Code (NFC), the National Energy Code for Buildings (NECB), the National Plumbing Code (NPC) and other documents. The Canadian Standards Association (CSA) publishes other model codes that address electrical, gas and elevator systems. The NBC is the model building code in Canada that forms the basis of most building design in the country. The NBC is a highly regarded model building code because it is a consensus-based process for producing a model set of requirements which provide for the health and safety of the public in buildings. Its origins are deeply entrenched within Canadian history and culture and a need to house the growing population of Canada safely and economically. Historical events have shaped many of the health and safety requirements of the NBC. Model codes such as the NBC and NECB have no force in law until they are adopted by a government authority having jurisdiction. In Canada, that responsibility resides within the provinces, territories and in some cases, municipalities. Most regions choose to adopt the NBC, or adapt their own version derived from the NBC to suit regional needs. The model codes in Canada are developed by experts, for experts, through a collaborative and consensus-based process that includes input from all segments of the building community. The Canadian model codes build on the best expertise from across Canada and around the world to provide effective building and safety regulations that are harmonized across Canada. The Codes Canada publications are developed by the Canadian Commission on Building and Fire Codes (CCBFC). The CCBFC oversees the work of a number of technical standing committees. Representing all major facets of the construction industry, commission members include building and fire officials, architects, engineers, contractors and building owners, as well as members of the public. Canadian Wood Council representatives hold membership status on several of the standing committees and task groups acting under the CCBFC and participate actively in the technical updates and revisions related to aspects of the Canadian model codes that apply to wood building products and systems. During any five-year code-revision cycle, there are many opportunities for the Canadian public to contribute to the process. At least twice during the five-year cycle, proposed changes to the Code are published and the public is invited to comment. This procedure is crucial as it allows input from all those concerned and broadens the scope of expertise of the Committees. Thousands of comments are received and examined by the Committees during each cycle. A proposed change may be approved as written, modified and resubmitted for public review at a later date, or rejected entirely.
Wood design in the National Building Code of Canada
The current edition of the National Building Code of Canada (NBC) is published in an objective-based format intended to allow more flexibility when evaluating non-traditional or alternative solutions. The objective-based format currently in use provides additional information that helps proponents and regulators determine what minimum performance level must be achieved to facilitate evaluation of new alternatives. Although the NBC helps users understand the intent of the requirements, it is understood that proponents and regulators will still have a challenge in terms of demonstrating compliance. In any case, objective-based codes are expected to foster a spirit of innovation and create new opportunities for Canadian manufacturers. Requirements related to the specification of structural wood products and wood building systems that relates to health, safety, accessibility and the protection of buildings from fire or structural damage is set forth in the NBC. The NBC applies mainly to new construction, but also aspects of demolition, relocation, renovation and change of building use. The current NBC was published in 2015, and is usually updated on a five-year cycle. The next update is expected in 2020. In terms of structural design, the NBC specifies loads, while material resistance is referenced through the use of material standards. In the case of engineering design in wood, CSA O86 provides the designer with the means of calculating the resistance values of structural wood products to resist gravity and lateral loads. Additional design information is found in the companion documents to the NBC; Structural Commentaries (User’s Guide – NBC 2015: Part 4 of Division B) and the Illustrated User’s Guide – NBC 2015: Part 9 of Division B, Housing and Small Buildings. In Canada, structural wood products are specified prescriptively or through engineered design, depending on the application and occupancy. Design professionals, such as architects and engineers, are generally required for structures that exceed three-storeys in height or are greater than 600 m2 or if occupancies are not covered by Part 9 ‘Housing and Small Buildings’ of the NBC. Housing and small buildings can be built without a full structural design using prescriptive requirements found in Part 9 of the Code. Some Part 9 requirements are based on calculations, others are based on construction practices that have a proven performance history. Generally prescriptive use is allowed if the following conditions are met: three-stories or less 600m2 or less uses repetitive wood members spaced within 600 mm spans are less than 12.2 meters floor live loads do not exceed 2.4 kPa residential, office, mercantile or medium-to low-hazard industrial occupancy The rationale for not basing all Part 9 requirements on calculations comes from the fact that there has been historical performance and experience with small wood-frame buildings in Canada, in addition to the notion that many of the non-structural elements actually contribute to the structural performance of a wood-frame system. Quantifying the ‘system’ effects on overall behaviour of a wood-frame building cannot be done adequately using typical design assumptions, such as two-dimensional load paths and single member engineering mechanics. In these instances, the requirements for houses and small buildings is based on alternative criteria of a prescriptive nature. These prescriptive criteria are based on an extensive performance history of wood-frame housing and small buildings that meet current day code objectives and requirements. Buildings that fall outside of prescriptive boundaries or are intended for major occupancy or post disaster situations must be designed by design professionals in accordance with Part 4 of the NBC. Structural resistance of wood products and building systems are engineered according to the requirements of CSA O86 in order to resist the loadings described in Part 4 of the NBC.
Fasteners
Fasteners, Connectors and Flashing for Wood Treated With Copper-Based Preservatives The presence of moisture is a precondition for corrosion of metals. Treated wood is typically used in applications where it may be exposed to moisture for considerable periods so any fasteners and connectors used with treated wood must also be resistant to these conditions. In addition, most wood preservatives designed for exterior use contain copper that may react with the metals used to fabricate fasteners and connectors therefore, it is important to use the right type of fastener and/or connectors. Where treated wood is used in dry environments to prevent damage by wood-destroying insects, including termites, corrosion is of less concern. Users and specifiers should also be aware that corrosive industrial, or salt air, environments may also require the use of appropriate corrosion resistant metals. Types of Wood Preserving Treatments Most copper-based preservatives are corrosive to unprotected fasteners and connectors. More recent systems such as MCA where the copper isn’t introduced in an ionic salt form, are designed to reduce the corrosion of metals, and the preserved wood is approved for use in contact with aluminum (e.g. brackets or outdoor furniture legs). Borate treatments do not increase the risk of corrosion. Recommendations on Connectors for Treated Wood Connectors used for wood treated with a copper-based preservative must be manufactured from steel either hot–dipped galvanized in accordance with ASTM A653 or hot dipped galvanized after manufacture in accordance with ASTM A123. Galvanizing nails and screws is actually a sacrificial coating to protect the structural integrity of the fastener, and the presence of some white corrosion product on the surface is normal. Red rust appearing is an indicator of coating failure. The service life of these components can be extended by using a barrier membrane between the connector and the treated wood surface. Stainless steel connectors (type 304 or 316) should be used for maximum service life, for high preservative retentions (i.e. ground contact products) or severe applications such as salt spray environments. For borate-treated wood used inside buildings, the same connectors can be used as for untreated wood. Recommendations on Fasteners for Treated Wood Fasteners for use in treated wood that will be exposed to the weather should be selected to withstand weathering as long as the treated wood itself. As a minimum, nails for wood treated with a copper-based preservative must be hot-dipped galvanized in accordance with ASTM A153. Hot-dipped galvanized nails should not be fastened using a high pressure nail gun due to the risk of damage to the coating during firing. The protective coating on electroplated galvanized fasteners is too thin and will perform poorly, and common nails will corrode rapidly after fastening most copper-based treated wood. Stainless steel should be used for maximum service life, for high preservative retentions or severe applications such as salt spray environments. Where appropriate, copper fasteners may also be used. Fasteners used in combination with metal connectors must be the same type of metal to avoid galvanic corrosion caused by dissimilar metals. For example stainless steel fasteners should not be used in combination with galvanized connectors. Screws intended for use on wood treated with a copper-based preservative must be hot dipped galvanized in accordance with ASTM A153 or, if recommended by the manufacturer and the preservative supplier, high-quality polymer coated. Stainless steel should be used for maximum service life, for high preservative retentions or severe applications such as salt spray environments. For borate treated wood used inside buildings, the same fasteners can be used as for untreated wood. As a general rule aluminum fasteners should not be used with treated wood, except new generation products (MCA treated) specifically tested, approved and labelled as suitable for contact with Aluminum. Recommendations on Flashing for Treated Wood Flashing used in contact with treated wood must be compatible with the treated wood and be last long enough to be suitable for the intended application. Flashing must also be of the same type of metal as any fasteners that penetrate through them to avoid galvanic corrosion. Copper and stainless steel are the most durable metals for flashing. Galvanized steel, in accordance with ASTM A653, G185 designation, is also suitable for use as flashing. Other Fasteners, Connectors or Hardware as Recommended by the Manufacturer There may be additional products such as polymer or ceramic coatings for fasteners, or vinyl or plastic flashings that are suitable for use with treated wood products. Consult the individual fastener, connector or flashing manufacturer for recommendations for use of their products with treated wood. Current Recommendations for Drying and Conditioning of Treated Wood Prior to Construction. Wood treated with copper-based preservatives should be at the least surface dried at the treating plant, in the store or at the job site before attachment of fasteners, connectors, flashing or other hardware. A moisture meter with a calibration for preservative treated wood should be used to verify that the wood is within a similar moisture content range to untreated construction lumber (i.e. about 12 to 18%) otherwise the treated wood can undergo similar shrinkage related cracking and deformation as incorrectly conditioned untreated lumber. Canadian Preservation Industry Canada has had a wood preservation industry for more than 100 years. Canada is tied with the UK as the world’s second largest producer of treated wood (the USA is first, by a large margin). In 1999, the most recent year for which we have data, Canada produced 3.5 million cubic metres of treated wood. There are about 60 treating plants in Canada. As with most other industrialized countries, Canada developed a wood preservation industry using creosote, initially to service railroads (the ties holding the rails) and then utilities (power poles). Creosote production began declining by the 1950s, and by the 1970s was being somewhat replaced for these traditional uses by pentachlorophenol. Today, these oil-borne preservatives only constitute 17% of Canadian treated wood production. The remaining 83% of production uses water-borne preservatives such as CCA, ACQ, CA and MCA. The industry began its substantial shift to the water borne
