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Codes & Standards, Wood Foundations

Codes & Standards

CSA S406 Permanent Wood Foundations

CSA S406 Specification of permanent wood foundations for housing and small buildings

CSA S406 is the design and construction standard for permanent wood foundations (PWF) that is referenced in Part 9 of the NBC and in provincial building codes. The first edition of CSA S406 was published in 1983, with subsequent revisions and updates to the standard published in 1992, 2014, and 2016. The CSA S406 applies to the selection of materials, the design, the fabrication and installation of PWF. The standard also contains information on site preparation, materials, cutting and machining, footings, sealants and dampproofing, exterior moisture barriers, backfilling and site grading.

Specific details and prescriptive requirements are provided in CSA S406 for buildings constructed on PWF that fall under Part 9 of the National Building Code of Canada (NBC), that is, buildings up to three-storeys in height above the foundation and having a building area not exceeding 600 m². CSA S406 provides for the optional use of wood sleeper, poured concrete slab, and suspended wood basement floor systems as components of the PWF, and for the use of PWF as crawl space enclosures. The standard does not exclude PWFs which may also be engineered for larger buildings, using the same principles of design, provided building code requirements are met.

The CSA S406 standard includes many selection tables and isometric figures, aimed at increasing design efficiency and the understanding of PWF construction details. The standard was developed based on specific engineering design assumptions regarding installation procedures, soil type, clear spans for floors and roofs, dead and live loads, modification factors, deflections and backfill height.

For conditions that go beyond the scope of CSA S406, similar details may be used provided they are based on accepted engineering principles that ensure a level of performance equivalent to that set forth in CSA S406. If any of the design conditions are different from or more severe than the assumptions, the PWF must be designed by a professional engineer or architect and installed in conformance with the standard. Regardless of the building size and conformance with the design assumptions of CSA S406, some authorities having jurisdiction require a design professional’s seal in order to issue a building permit.

For further information, refer to the following resources:

Permanent Wood Foundations (Canadian Wood Council)

Wood Preservation Canada

National Building Code of Canada

Wood Products

The Basics

Panel Products

By using roundwood that is often not be suitable for lumber production, wood-based panels make efficient use of the forest resource by providing engineered wood products with defined strength and stiffness properties.

Wood-based structural panels such as plywood and oriented strand board (OSB) are widely used in residential and commercial construction. Wood-based panels are often overlaid on joists or light frame trusses and used as structural sheathing for floor, roofs and wall assemblies. These products provide rigidity to the supporting main structural members in addition to their function as a component of the building envelope. In addition, they are often an integral component of the lateral force resisting system of a wood building.

In order to qualify for a particular end use, such as structural sheathing, flooring or exterior siding, wood-based panels must meet performance criteria related to three aspects: structural performance, physical properties and bond performance. For more information on performance rating and potential end uses of wood-based panel products, refer to APA – The Engineered Wood Association.

Engineered Wood Products (EWP), Wood Products

The Basics

Laminated Strand Lumber

Laminated Strand Lumber (LSL) is one of the more recent structural composite lumber (SCL) products to come into widespread use. LSL provides attributes such as high strength, high stiffness and dimensional stability. The manufacturing process of LSL enables large members to be made from relatively small trees, providing efficient utilization of forest resources. LSL is commonly fabricated using fast growing wood species such as Aspen and Poplar.

LSL is used primarily as structural framing for residential, commercial and industrial construction. Common applications of LSL in construction include headers and beams, tall wall studs, rim board, sill plates, millwork and window framing. LSL also offers good fastener-holding strength.

Similar to parallel strand lumber (PSL) and oriented strand lumber (OSL), LSL is made from flaked wood strands that have a length-to-thickness ratio of approximately 150. Combined with an adhesive, the strands are oriented and formed into a large mat or billet and pressed. LSL resembles oriented strand board (OSB) in appearance as they are both fabricated from the similar wood species and contain flaked wood strands, however, unlike OSB, the strands in LSL are arranged parallel to the longitudinal axis of the member.

LSL is a solid, highly predictable, uniform engineered wood product due to the fact that natural defects such as knots, slope of grain and splits have been dispersed throughout the material or have been removed altogether during the manufacturing process. Like other SCL products such as LVL and PSL, LSL offers predictable strength and stiffness properties and dimensional stability that minimize twist and shrinkage.

All special cutting, notching or drilling should be done in accordance with manufacturer’s recommendations. Manufacturer’s catalogues and evaluation reports are the primary sources of information for design, typical installation details and performance characteristics.

As with any other wood product, LSL should be protected from the weather during jobsite storage and after installation. Wrapping of the product for shipment to the job site is important in providing moisture protection. End and edge sealing of the product will enhance its resistance to moisture penetration.

LSL is a proprietary product and therefore, the specific engineering properties and sizes are unique to each manufacturer. Thus, LSL does not have a common standard of production and common design values. Design values are derived from test results analysed in accordance with CSA O86 and ASTM D5456 and the design values are reviewed and approved by the Canadian Construction Materials Centre (CCMC). Products meeting the CCMC guidelines receive an Evaluation Number and Evaluation Report that includes the specified design strengths, which are subsequently listed in CCMC’s Registry of Product Evaluations. The manufacturer’s name or product identification and the stress grade is marked on the material at various intervals, but due to end cutting it may not be present on every piece.

For further information, refer to the following resources:

APA – The Engineered Wood Association

Canadian Construction Materials Centre (CCMC), Institute for Research in Construction

CSA O86 Engineering design in wood

ASTM D5456 Standard Specification for Evaluation of Structural Composite Lumber Products

Engineered Wood Products (EWP), Wood Products

The Basics

Oriented Strand Lumber

Oriented Strand Lumber (OSL)

Oriented Strand Lumber (OSL) provides attributes such as high strength, high stiffness and dimensional stability. The manufacturing process of OSL enables large members to be made from relatively small trees, providing efficient utilization of forest resources.

OSL is used primarily as structural framing for residential, commercial and industrial construction. Common applications of OSL in construction include headers and beams, tall wall studs, rim board, sill plates, millwork and window framing. OSL also offers good fastener-holding strength.

Similar to laminated strand lumber (LSL), OSL is made from flaked wood strands that have a length-to-thickness ratio of approximately 75. The wood strands used in OSL are shorter than those in LSL. Combined with an adhesive, the strands are oriented and formed into a large mat or billet and pressed. OSL resembles oriented strand board (OSB) in appearance as they are both fabricated from the similar wood species and contain flaked wood strands, however, unlike OSB, the strands in OSL are arranged parallel to the longitudinal axis of the member.

OSL is a solid, highly predictable, uniform engineered wood product due to the fact that natural defects such as knots, slope of grain and splits have been dispersed throughout the material or have been removed altogether during the manufacturing process. Like other SCL products such as LVL and PSL, OSL offers predictable strength and stiffness properties and dimensional stability that minimize twist and shrinkage.

As with any other wood product, OSL should be protected from the weather during jobsite storage and after installation. Wrapping of the product for shipment to the job site is important in providing moisture protection. End and edge sealing of the product will enhance its resistance to moisture penetration.

OSL is a proprietary product and therefore, the specific engineering properties and sizes are unique to each manufacturer. Thus, OSL does not have a common standard of production and common design values. Design values are derived from test results analysed in accordance with CSA O86 and ASTM D5456 and the design values are reviewed and approved by the Canadian Construction Materials Centre (CCMC). Products meeting the CCMC guidelines receive an Evaluation Number and Evaluation Report that includes the specified design strengths, which are subsequently listed in CCMC’s Registry of Product Evaluations. The manufacturer’s name or product identification and the stress grade is marked on the material at various intervals, but due to end cutting it may not be present on every piece.

For further information, refer to the following resources:

APA – The Engineered Wood Association

Canadian Construction Materials Centre (CCMC), Institute for Research in Construction

CSA O86 Engineering design in wood

ASTM D5456 Standard Specification for Evaluation of Structural Composite Lumber Products

Wood as a Structural Material: Properties, Systems, and Design

Resource Description

A structured undergraduate timber engineering course designed to introduce students to the fundamental material properties of wood and the principles of structural design with timber. Each module includes lecture slides, notes, and worked examples.

Module 1 – Physical & Mechanical Properties of Wood.
Covers density, moisture content, cellular structure, shrinkage, strength, stiffness, behavior under stress, test methods, failure modes, and modification factors.
Module 2 – Structural Wood Products and Systems.
Introduces sawn lumber, panel products, and engineered wood products (EWP) such as glulam, structural composite lumber, and CLT. Discusses applications and design considerations.
Module 3 – Axially Loaded Members.
Examines the behavior and design of tension members, compression members, and members subject to combined axial and bending forces, with examples.
Module 4 – Bending Members.
Focuses on the design of members subject to bending, including sawn lumber, glulam, composite beams, and CLT panels.
Module 5 – Shearwalls and Diaphragms.
Discusses lateral load resisting systems, vertical and horizontal bracing, load paths, and the design of light wood frame shearwall and diaphragm assemblies.
Module 6 – Design of Connections.
Introduces fasteners and connection systems, including nails, screws, bolts, dowels, glued-in rods, and proprietary connectors.

This 6-part course provides students with a solid grounding in timber engineering and can be integrated into structural design curricula at the undergraduate level.

Acknowledgments

Lead Authors

Dr. Ying Hei Chui
University of Alberta

Usage and Citation Guidelines

These teaching materials were developed by university professors with funding support from the Canadian Wood Council. The content remains the intellectual property of the respective author(s) and is provided free of charge for teaching and educational purposes only. Any commercial use, redistribution, or modification outside of academic teaching is strictly prohibited.

When using these resources in any context that requires citation, please use the format below.

Author(s). (Year). Title of module [Teaching Module]. Funded and published by the Canadian Wood Council.

Building Canada’s Future With Wood

Course Overview

This session will feature thought leaders in a podcast-style conversation exploring the evolving role of wood in Canadian construction. Through a series of rotating interviews, the discussion will highlight key themes including the rise of mass timber and tallwood buildings, the shift toward offsite construction, and wood’s potential to address the housing affordability crisis. The session offers a forward-looking yet grounded perspective on the opportunities and complexities shaping the industry.

Learning Objectives

Understand how mass timber and tall wood construction are transitioning from niche applications to mainstream use in Canadian mid- and high-rise buildings.
Understand how prefabrication, modularization, and early team integration influence cost, schedule, and risk outcomes in wood construction projects.
Explain how mass timber can support institutional, residential, and mixed-use project goals related to sustainability, constructability, and housing delivery.

Course Video

https://vimeo.com/1178529090

Speakers Bio

Russell Hixson
Editor
SiteNews

Russell Hixson is an award-winning investigative journalist who began his career covering crime and courts in the United States before transitioning into Canada’s construction sector. He spent eight years at the Journal of Commerce, where he developed deep expertise in the industry and its key issues. He has also reported on the federal budget from Ottawa and documented the early impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic while working remotely. Hixson has developed a strong interest in the construction industry and is passionate about sharing its stories through SiteNews, with the goal of engaging and informing a broader audience.

Jana Foit
Principal, Higher Education Practice Lead
Perkins&Will, Vancouver

Jana Foit is a Principal and Higher Education Practice Lead at Perkins&Will’s Vancouver studio. With over two decades of experience, she has led numerous mass timber projects, including the Earth Science Building and Gateway Building at the University of British Columbia, as well as the BCIT Tall Timber Student Housing project. She is a frequent speaker and panelist on mass timber design and contributes to several industry publications, including the Nail Laminated Timber Design and Construction Guide, the Survey of International Tall Wood Buildings, and the Technical Guide for the Design and Construction of Tall Wood Buildings in Canada.

Robert Malczyk
Principal
Timber Engineering Inc.

Robert Malczyk is one of a small number of university-trained specialized timber engineers. After completing his master’s degree at Warsaw University of Technology, he moved to Canada to study under the renowned Professor Borg Madsen at the University of British Columbia. In 1997, he co-founded Equilibrium Consulting Inc., contributing to award-winning projects such as the Art Gallery of Ontario’s Galleria Italia designed by Frank Gehry. In 2021, he co-founded Timber Engineering Inc. He currently works on projects across Canada, the United States, and Asia. His expertise focuses on a systems-based approach to mass timber design, with an emphasis on structural efficiency and energy performance.

Andrew Stiffman
Vice President, Construction Services
Kalesnikoff

Andrew Stiffman brings diverse project experience across single-family homes, large-scale passive house developments, and low- to mid-rise mass timber construction. At Kalesnikoff Mass Timber, he oversees the full project lifecycle of prefabricated and mass timber projects, from early-stage discussions through to completion. His background in building science, development management, and hands-on high-performance construction enables him to combine technical expertise with practical delivery, leading multidisciplinary teams to successful project outcomes.

Durability, Sustainability

The Basics

Wood Advantages

Wood is resistant to some of the chemicals destructive to steel and concrete. For example, wood is often the material of choice when exposed to: organic compounds, hot or cold solutions of acids or neutral salts, dilute acids, industrial stack gases, sea air and high relative humidity. Because of its resistance to chemicals wood is often used in the following applications:

Potash storage buildings
Salt storage domes
Cooling towers
Industrial tanks for various types of chemicals

With thoughtful design and careful workmanship wood bridges prove to be remarkably durable. Throughout the world, there are numerous examples of long lasting wooden bridges – both historic and modern. Modern bridge decks are subjected to relentless attack of de-icing chemicals, and wood is gaining acceptance as a viable option for these applications.

Pilings that are constantly submerged in fresh water have been known to last for centuries. Foundation piles under structures will not decay if the water table remains higher than the pile tops. Many of the world’s important structures are built on wood piles including much of the city of Venice and the Empire State Building in New York.